A Systematic Review of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technologies and Their Impacts on Environmental Sustainability
Abstract
The increasing concerns over climate change and air pollution have resulted in a burgeoning interest in alternative transportation technologies that mitigate Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and enhance air quality. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) technologies have emerged as a viable option to these challenges, providing a more efficient and eco-friendly alternative to conventional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) automobiles. There are still uncertainties regarding the environmental sustainability of HEV technologies, as well as constraints associated with their acceptance and incorporation into the transportation system. This study addresses these concerns by systematically reviewing current literature on HEV technologies and their environmental impact. The research methodology encompassed thoroughly examining scholarly articles, studies, and other pertinent materials on HEV technologies, their ecological consequences, and their ability to mitigate GHG emissions. The search was performed via online academic databases and relevant industry reports. The literature evaluation concentrated on research assessing HEV technologies' environmental efficacy, encompassing their capacity to decrease emissions, enhance fuel efficiency, and promote overall sustainability. An analysis was conducted on the outcomes of this research to uncover significant patterns, trends, challenges, and prospects for enhancing the sustainability of HEV technology. The findings suggest that HEV technologies can substantially decrease emissions and improve fuel economy compared to conventional ICE vehicles. It was observed that HEV can reduce GHG emissions by as much as 50% and improve fuel efficiency by an average of 20-30%. Nevertheless, challenges must be resolved, including battery technology, infrastructural development, and customer acceptability. The findings suggest that more research and development should be conducted to improve the sustainability of HEV technologies and accelerate their acceptance in the market.
Keywords:
GHG emissions, Hybrid electric vehicle, Environmental sustainability, Fuel efficiency, Transportation technologyReferences
- [1] Sidharthan Panaparambil, V., Kashyap, Y., & Vijay Castelino, R. (2021). A review on hybrid source energy management strategies for electric vehicle. International journal of energy research, 45(14), 19819–19850. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.7107
- [2] Ehsani, M., Singh, K. V., Bansal, H. O., & Mehrjardi, R. T. (2021). State of the art and trends in electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Proceedings of the IEEE, 109(6), 967–984. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2021.3072788
- [3] de Souza, L. L. P., Lora, E. E. S., Palacio, J. C. E., Rocha, M. H., Renó, M. L. G., & Venturini, O. J. (2018). Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of conventional vehicles with different fuel options, plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles for a sustainable transportation system in Brazil. Journal of cleaner production, 203, 444–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.236
- [4] Fantin, I. R. E., & Appadurai, M. (2021). The hybrid electric vehicle (hev)---an overview. Emerging solutions for e-mobility and smart grids (pp. 25–36). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0719-6_3
- [5] Wang, R., Wu, Y., Ke, W., Zhang, S., Zhou, B., & Hao, J. (2015). Can propulsion and fuel diversity for the bus fleet achieve the win–win strategy of energy conservation and environmental protection? Applied energy, 147, 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.107
- [6] Zaino, R., Ahmed, V., Alhammadi, A. M., & Alghoush, M. (2024). Electric vehicle adoption: A comprehensive systematic review of technological, environmental, organizational and policy impacts. World electric vehicle journal, 15(8), 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080375
- [7] Hawkins, T. R., Gausen, O. M., & Strømman, A. H. (2012). Environmental impacts of hybrid and electric vehicles—a review. The international journal of life cycle assessment, 17(8), 997–1014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0440-9
- [8] Mustafi, N. N. (2022). An overview of hybrid electric vehicle technology. In engines and fuels for future transport (pp. 73–102). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8717-4_5
- [9] Pipitone, E., Caltabellotta, S., & Occhipinti, L. (2021). A life cycle environmental impact comparison between traditional, hybrid, and electric vehicles in the European context. Sustainability, 13(19), 10992. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910992
- [10] Limon, M. H., Debnath, B., & Bari, A. B. M. M. (2023). Exploration of the drivers influencing the growth of hybrid electric vehicle adoption in the emerging economies: Implications towards sustainability and low-carbon economy. Sustainable operations and computers, 4, 76–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susoc.2023.04.002
- [11] Hossain, M. S., Kumar, L., Islam, M. M., & Selvaraj, J. (2022). A comprehensive review on the integration of electric vehicles for sustainable development. Journal of advanced transportation, 2022(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3868388
- [12] Chandran, M., Palanisamy, K., Benson, D., & Sundaram, S. (2022). A review on electric and fuel cell vehicle anatomy, technology evolution and policy drivers towards EVs and FCEVs market propagation. The chemical record, 22(2), e202100235. https://doi.org/10.1002/tcr.202100235
- [13] Bazzi, A. M. (2013). Electric machines and energy storage technologies in evs and hevs for over a century. 2013 international electric machines & drives conference (pp. 212–219). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMDC.2013.6556255
- [14] Purdy, M. A., & Khudyakov, Y. E. (2010). Evolutionary history and population dynamics of hepatitis E virus. PloS one, 5(12), e14376. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014376
- [15] Anselma, P. G., & Belingardi, G. (2019). Next generation HEV powertrain design tools: Roadmap and challenges. https://doi.org/10.4271/2019-01-2602
- [16] Poullikkas, A. (2015). Sustainable options for electric vehicle technologies. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 41, 1277–1287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.016
- [17] de Lucena, S. E. (2011). A survey on electric and hybrid electric vehicle technology. In electric vehicles-the benefits and barriers (pp. 1–21). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/18046
- [18] Salisa, A. R., Walker, P. D., Zhang, N., & Zhu, J. G. (2015). Comparative cost-based analysis of a novel plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with conventional and hybrid electric vehicles. International journal of automotive and mechanical engineering (IJAME), 11, 2262–2271. http://dx.doi.org/10.15282/ijame.11.2015.9.0190
- [19] Van Duin, J. H. R., Tavasszy, L. A., & Quak, H. J. (2013). Towards E (lectric)-urban freight: First promising steps in the electric vehicle revolution. European transport/trasporti europei, 54(9), 1–19. http://hdl.handle.net/10077/8875
- [20] Lee, C. H. T., Hua, W., Long, T., Jiang, C., & Iyer, L. V. (2021). A critical review of emerging technologies for electric and hybrid vehicles. IEEE open journal of vehicular technology, 2, 471–485. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJVT.2021.3138894
- [21] Un-Noor, F., Padmanaban, S., Mihet-Popa, L., Mollah, M. N., & Hossain, E. (2017). A comprehensive study of key electric vehicle (EV) components, technologies, challenges, impacts, and future direction of development. Energies, 10(8), 1217. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10081217
- [22] Zakaria, H., Hamid, M., Abdellatif, E. L. M., & Imane, A. (2019). Recent advancements and developments for electric vehicle technology. 2019 international conference of computer science and renewable energies (ICCSRE) (pp. 1–6). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCSRE.2019.8807726
- [23] Hossain, M. S., Kumar, L., El Haj Assad, M., & Alayi, R. (2022). Advancements and future prospects of electric vehicle technologies: A comprehensive review. Complexity, 2022(1), 3304796. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3304796
- [24] Liu, W., Placke, T., & Chau, K. T. (2022). Overview of batteries and battery management for electric vehicles. Energy reports, 8, 4058–4084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.03.016
- [25] Waseem, M., Ahmad, M., Parveen, A., & Suhaib, M. (2023). Battery technologies and functionality of battery management system for EVs: Current status, key challenges, and future prospectives. Journal of power sources, 580, 233349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233349
- [26] Alanazi, F. (2023). Electric vehicles: Benefits, challenges, and potential solutions for widespread adaptation. Applied sciences, 13(10), 6016. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13106016
- [27] Ahmed, M. A., Guerrero, L., & Franco, P. (2024). Network modeling and analysis of internet of electric vehicles architecture for monitoring charging station networks—a case study in Chile. Sustainability, 16(14), 5915. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16145915
- [28] Harizaj, M., & Bisha, I. (2023). Integration in internet of things of electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Engineering applications, 2(2), 136–145. https://publish.mersin.edu.tr/index.php/enap/article/view/885
- [29] Emodi, N. V., Akuru, U. B., Dioha, M. O., Adoba, P., Kuhudzai, R. J., & Bamisile, O. (2023). The role of Internet of Things on electric vehicle charging infrastructure and consumer experience. Energies, 16(10), 4248. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104248
- [30] Neeraja, B., Ralte, H., Jain, K., Surlekar, S. R., Arani, D. A., & Mabborang, R. C. (2023). Real-time life analysis of the electric vehicles using iot - computer-based smart systems. 2023 international conference on communication, security and artificial intelligence (ICCSAI) (pp. 238–243). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCSAI59793.2023.10421637
- [31] Broussely, M. (2010). Battery requirements for HEVs, PHEVs, and EVs: An overview. In electric and hybrid vehicles: Power sources, models, sustainability, infrastructure and the market (pp. 305–347). Elsevier Amsterdam, The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53565-8.00013-0
- [32] Elwert, T., Goldmann, D., Römer, F., Buchert, M., Merz, C., Schueler, D., & Sutter, J. (2015). Current developments and challenges in the recycling of key components of (hybrid) electric vehicles. Recycling, 1(1), 25–60. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling1010025
- [33] Singh, K. V., Bansal, H. O., & Singh, D. (2019). A comprehensive review on hybrid electric vehicles: architectures and components. Journal of modern transportation, 27(2), 77–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40534-019-0184-3
- [34] Abbasi, V., & Tabar, V. S. (2020). Measurement and evaluation of produced energy by thermoelectric generator in vehicle. Measurement, 149, 107035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2019.107035
- [35] Lulhe, A. M., & Date, T. N. (2015). A technology review paper for drives used in electrical vehicle (ev) & hybrid electrical vehicles (HEV). 2015 international conference on control, instrumentation, communication and computational technologies (ICCICCT) (pp. 632–636). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCICCT.2015.7475355
- [36] Zarma, T. A., Galadima, A. A., & Aminu, M. A. (2019). Review of motors for electrical vehicles. Journal of scientific research and reports, 24(6), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.9734/JSRR/2019/v24i630170
- [37] Hannan, M. A., Azidin, F. A., & Mohamed, A. (2014). Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 29, 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.097
- [38] Lyati, M. M. (2021). Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV): Classification, configuration, and vehicle control. Journal of sa electronics, 1(1), 1–10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348549061
- [39] Pielecha, J., Skobiej, K., Kubiak, P., Wozniak, M., & Siczek, K. (2022). Exhaust emissions from plug-in and HEV vehicles in type-approval tests and real driving cycles. Energies, 15(7), 2423. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072423
- [40] Lee, S., Cherry, J., Safoutin, M., Neam, A., McDonald, J., & Newman, K. (2018). Modeling and controls development of 48 V mild hybrid electric vehicles. https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0413
- [41] Oh, H., Lee, J., Woo, S., & Park, H. (2021). Effect of synergistic engine technologies for 48 V mild hybrid electric vehicles. Energy conversion and management, 244, 114515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114515
- [42] Wirasingha, S. G., & Emadi, A. (2011). Classification and review of control strategies for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE transactions on vehicular technology, 60(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2010.2090178
- [43] Krupa, J. S., Rizzo, D. M., Eppstein, M. J., Brad Lanute, D., Gaalema, D. E., Lakkaraju, K., & Warrender, C. E. (2014). Analysis of a consumer survey on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Transportation research part a: Policy and practice, 64, 14–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2014.02.019
- [44] Singh, H., Ambikapathy, A., Logavani, K., Arun Prasad, G., & Thangavel, S. (2021). Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). In electric vehicles: Modern technologies and trends (pp. 53–72). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9251-5_3
- [45] Wu, G., Zhang, X., & Dong, Z. (2015). Powertrain architectures of electrified vehicles: Review, classification and comparison. Journal of the franklin institute, 352(2), 425–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfranklin.2014.04.018
- [46] Lanzarotto, D., Marchesoni, M., Passalacqua, M., Prato, A. P., & Repetto, M. (2018). Overview of different hybrid vehicle architectures. IFAC-papersonline, 51(9), 218–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2018.07.036
- [47] Zia, A. (2016). A comprehensive overview on the architecture of hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). 2016 19th international multi-topic conference (INMIC) (pp. 1–7). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/INMIC.2016.7840143
- [48] Kabalan, B., Vinot, E., Cheng, Y., Trigui, R., & Dumand, C. (2017). Improvement of a series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle architecture. 2017 IEEE vehicle power and propulsion conference (VPPC) (pp. 1–6). https://doi.org/10.1109/VPPC.2017.8330943
- [49] Kabalan, B., Vinot, E., Yuan, C., Trigui, R., Dumand, C., & El Hajji, T. (2019). Efficiency improvement of a series–parallel hybrid electric powertrain by topology modification. IEEE transactions on vehicular technology, 68(12), 11523–11531. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2019.2952190
- [50] Rajendran, G., Vaithilingam, C. A., Misron, N., Naidu, K., & Ahmed, M. R. (2021). A comprehensive review on system architecture and international standards for electric vehicle charging stations. Journal of energy storage, 42, 103099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103099
- [51] Propfe, B., Redelbach, M., Santini, D. J., & Friedrich, H. (2012). Cost analysis of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles including maintenance & repair costs and resale values. World electric vehicle journal, 5(4), 886–895. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj5040886
- [52] M. Sabri, M. F., Danapalasingam, K. A., & Rahmat, M. F. (2016). A review on hybrid electric vehicles architecture and energy management strategies. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 53, 1433–1442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.036
- [53] Nguyen, Q., Nguyen, L., & Nguyen, T. (2023). Studying the fuel consumption equation on hybrid vehicles. Open access research journal of science and technology, 7, 19–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.53022/oarjst.2023.7.2.0020
- [54] Zhang, F., Wang, L., Coskun, S., Pang, H., Cui, Y., & Xi, J. (2020). Energy management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles: Review, classification, comparison, and outlook. Energies, 13(13), 3352. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133352
- [55] Xue, Q., Zhang, X., Teng, T., Zhang, J., Feng, Z., & Lv, Q. (2020). A comprehensive review on classification, energy management strategy, and control algorithm for hybrid electric vehicles. Energies, 13(20), 5355. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205355
- [56] Benveniste, G., Rallo, H., Canals Casals, L., Merino, A., & Amante, B. (2018). Comparison of the state of Lithium-Sulphur and lithium-ion batteries applied to electromobility. Journal of environmental management, 226, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.08.008
- [57] Wei, C., Hofman, T., Ilhan Caarls, E., & van Iperen, R. (2020). A review of the integrated design and control of electrified vehicles. Energies, 13(20), 5454. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205454
- [58] Casper, R., & Sundin, E. (2021). Electrification in the automotive industry: Effects in remanufacturing. Journal of remanufacturing, 11(2), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13243-020-00094-8
- [59] Mayyas, A., Omar, M., Hayajneh, M., & Mayyas, A. R. (2017). Vehicle’s lightweight design vs. electrification from life cycle assessment perspective. Journal of cleaner production, 167, 687–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.145
- [60] Ahmed, A. A., Abdullah, M. A., Mansor, M., Marsadek, M. B., Ying, Y. J., Abd Rahman, M. S., & Salim, N. A. (2021). NEPLAN-based analysis of impacts of electric vehicle charging strategies on power distribution system. IOP conference series: Materials science and engineering (pp. 12033). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1127/1/012033
- [61] Zhang, F., Hu, X., Langari, R., & Cao, D. (2019). Energy management strategies of connected HEVs and PHEVs: Recent progress and outlook. Progress in energy and combustion science, 73, 235–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2019.04.002
- [62] Bagheri, S., Huang, Y., Walker, P. D., Zhou, J. L., & Surawski, N. C. (2021). Strategies for improving the emission performance of hybrid electric vehicles. Science of the total environment, 771, 144901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144901
- [63] López, I., Ibarra, E., Matallana, A., Andreu, J., & Kortabarria, I. (2019). Next generation electric drives for HEV/EV propulsion systems: Technology, trends and challenges. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 114, 109336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109336
- [64] Li, L., Wang, X., & Song, J. (2017). Fuel consumption optimization for smart hybrid electric vehicle during a car-following process. Mechanical systems and signal processing, 87, 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2016.03.002
- [65] Awadallah, M., Tawadros, P., Walker, P., Zhang, N., & Tawadros, J. (2017). A system analysis and modeling of a hev based on ultracapacitor battery. 2017 IEEE transportation electrification conference and expo (ITEC) (pp. 792–798). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITEC.2017.7993370
- [66] Tran, D. D., Vafaeipour, M., El Baghdadi, M., Barrero, R., Van Mierlo, J., & Hegazy, O. (2020). Thorough state-of-the-art analysis of electric and hybrid vehicle powertrains: Topologies and integrated energy management strategies. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 119, 109596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109596
- [67] Minh, V. T., Moezzi, R., Cyrus, J., & Hlava, J. (2022). Optimal fuel consumption modelling, simulation, and analysis for hybrid electric vehicles. Applied system innovation, 5(2), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5020036
- [68] Ataman, B. C., Igbeka, U. E., Emenime, A. I., Kwasi-Effah, C. C., & Max-Eguakun, F. (2021). Role of hybrid electric vehicles for sustainable transportation. NIPES-journal of science and technology research, 3(4), 376–382. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8052169
- [69] Huang, Y., Wang, H., Khajepour, A., Li, B., Ji, J., Zhao, K., & Hu, C. (2018). A review of power management strategies and component sizing methods for hybrid vehicles. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 96, 132–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.020
- [70] Anselma, P. G., Niutta, C. B., Mainini, L., & Belingardi, G. (2020). Multidisciplinary design optimization for hybrid electric vehicles: Component sizing and multi-fidelity frontal crashworthiness. Structural and multidisciplinary optimization, 62(4), 2149–2166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00158-020-02603-6
- [71] Meng, D., Yang, S., He, C., Wang, H., Lv, Z., Guo, Y., & Nie, P. (2022). Multidisciplinary design optimization of engineering systems under uncertainty: A review. International journal of structural integrity, 13(4), 565–593. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSI-05-2022-0076
- [72] Houshmand, A. (2016). Multidisciplinary dynamic system design optimization of hybrid electric vehicle powertrains. [Thesis]. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1479822276400281
- [73] Enang, W., & Bannister, C. (2017). Modelling and control of hybrid electric vehicles (A comprehensive review). Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 74, 1210–1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.075
- [74] Cao, Y., Yao, M., & Sun, X. (2023). An overview of modelling and energy management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles. Applied sciences, 13(10), 5947. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13105947
- [75] Xu, N., Kong, Y., Chu, L., Ju, H., Yang, Z., Xu, Z., & Xu, Z. (2019). Towards a smarter energy management system for hybrid vehicles: A comprehensive review of control strategies. Applied sciences, 9(10), 2026. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9102026
- [76] Lü, X., Li, S., He, X., Xie, C., He, S., Xu, Y., … ., & Yang, X. (2022). Hybrid electric vehicles: A review of energy management strategies based on model predictive control. Journal of energy storage, 56, 106112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.106112
- [77] Lai, I. K. W., Liu, Y., Sun, X., Zhang, H., & Xu, W. (2015). Factors influencing the behavioural intention towards full electric vehicles: An empirical study in Macau. Sustainability, 7(9), 12564–12585. https://doi.org/10.3390/su70912564
- [78] Tu, J. C., & Yang, C. (2019). Key factors influencing consumers’ purchase of electric vehicles. Sustainability, 11(14), 3863. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143863
- [79] Li, W., Long, R., Chen, H., & Geng, J. (2017). A review of factors influencing consumer intentions to adopt battery electric vehicles. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 78, 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.076
- [80] Munsi, M. S., & Chaoui, H. (2024). Energy management systems for electric vehicles: A comprehensive review of technologies and trends. IEEE access, 12, 60385–60403. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3371483
- [81] Sulaiman, N., Hannan, M. A., Mohamed, A., Ker, P. J., Majlan, E. H., & Wan Daud, W. R. (2018). Optimization of energy management system for fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles: Issues and recommendations. Applied energy, 228, 2061–2079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.07.087
- [82] Chen, B., Pan, X., & Evangelou, S. A. (2023). Optimal energy management of series hybrid electric vehicles with engine start–stop system. IEEE transactions on control systems technology, 31(2), 660–675. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCST.2022.3192920
- [83] Anselma, P. G. (2022). Dynamic programming based rapid energy management of hybrid electric vehicles with constraints on smooth driving, battery state-of-charge and battery state-of-health. Energies, 15(5), 1665. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051665
- [84] Donatantonio, F., Ferrara, A., Polverino, P., Arsie, I., & Pianese, C. (2022). Novel approaches for energy management strategies of hybrid electric vehicles and comparison with conventional solutions. Energies, 15(6), 1972. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15061972
- [85] Zhao, C., Zu, B., Xu, Y., Wang, Z., Zhou, J., & Liu, L. (2020). Design and analysis of an engine-start control strategy for a single-shaft parallel hybrid electric vehicle. Energy, 202, 117621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117621
- [86] Liu, Y., Chen, D., Lei, Z., Qin, D., Zhang, Y., Wu, R., & Luo, Y. (2017). Modeling and control of engine starting for a full hybrid electric vehicle based on system dynamic characteristics. International journal of automotive technology, 18(5), 911–922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12239-017-0089-2
- [87] Suh, B., Chang, Y. H., Han, S. B., & Chung, Y. J. (2012). Simulation of a powertrain system for the diesel hybrid electric bus. International journal of automotive technology, 13(5), 701–711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12239-012-0069-5
- [88] Chen, X., Jiang, J., Zheng, L., Tang, H., & Chen, X. (2020). Study and analysis of a multi-mode power split hybrid transmission. World electric vehicle journal, 11(2), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj11020046
- [89] Huang, K., Xiang, C., Ma, Y., Wang, W., & Langari, R. (2017). Mode shift control for a hybrid heavy-duty vehicle with power-split transmission. Energies, 10(2), 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020177
- [90] Mashadi, B., & Emadi, S. A. M. (2010). Dual-mode power-split transmission for hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE transactions on vehicular technology, 59(7), 3223–3232. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2010.2049870
- [91] Groen, B. C. (2011). Investigation of dc motors for electric and hybrid electric motor vehicle applications using an infinitely variable transmission. [Thesis]. http://hdl.lib.byu.edu/1877/etd4183
- [92] Franzò, S., & Nasca, A. (2021). The environmental impact of electric vehicles: A novel life cycle-based evaluation framework and its applications to multi-country scenarios. Journal of cleaner production, 315, 128005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128005
- [93] Petrauskienė, K., Tverskytė, R., & Dvarionienė, J. (2022). Environmental and economic benefits of electric, hybrid and conventional vehicle treatment: A case study of Lithuania. Waste management, 140, 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.01.009
- [94] Balali, Y., & Stegen, S. (2021). Review of energy storage systems for vehicles based on technology, environmental impacts, and costs. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 135, 110185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110185
- [95] Burchart-Korol, D., Jursova, S., Folęga, P., Korol, J., Pustejovska, P., & Blaut, A. (2018). Environmental life cycle assessment of electric vehicles in Poland and the Czech Republic. Journal of cleaner production, 202, 476–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.145
- [96] Butler, K. L., Ehsani, M., & Kamath, P. (1999). A Matlab-based modeling and simulation package for electric and hybrid electric vehicle design. IEEE transactions on vehicular technology, 48(6), 1770–1778. https://doi.org/10.1109/25.806769
- [97] Muratori, M., Alexander, M., Arent, D., Bazilian, M., Cazzola, P., Dede, E. M., … ., & Ward, J. (2021). The rise of electric vehicles—2020 status and future expectations. Progress in energy, 3(2), 22002. https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/abe0ad
- [98] Ye, J., Guo, L., Yang, B., Li, F., Du, L., Guan, L., & Song, W. (2021). Cyber–physical security of powertrain systems in modern electric vehicles: Vulnerabilities, challenges, and future visions. IEEE journal of emerging and selected topics in power electronics, 9(4), 4639–4657. https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2020.3045667
- [99] Chau, K. T., & Wong, Y. S. (2002). Overview of power management in hybrid electric vehicles. Energy conversion and management, 43(15), 1953–1968. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(01)00148-0